Computer Hardware main components

Introduction to Computer Hardware: -

Hardware is the physical appearance of the devices or tools. It is what which we can touch and feel. Computer Hardware consists of the Monitor, CPU, Keyboard, Mouse and all other devices connected to the computer either externally or internally.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):- 


The central processing unit contains the heart of any computer, the processor. The processor is fitted on to a Mother Board. The Mother Board contains various components, which support the functioning of a PC.    

64-bit Microprocessors

Sixty-four-bit processors have been with us since 1992, and in the 21st century they have started to become mainstream. Both Intel and AMD have introduced 64-bit chips, and the Mac G5 sports a 64-bit processor. Sixty-four-bit processors have 64-bit ALUs, 64-bit registers, 64-bit buses and so on.

          One reason why the world needs 64-bit processors is because of their enlarged address spaces. Thirty-two-bit chips are often constrained to a maximum of 2 GB or 4 GB of  RAM access That sounds like a lot, given that most home computers currently use only 256 MB to 512 MB of RAM. However, a 4-GB limit can be a severe problem for server machines and machines running large databases. And even home machines will start bumping up against the 2 GB or 4 GB limit pretty soon if current trends continue. A 64-bit chip has none of these constraints because a 64-bit RAM address space is essentially infinite for the foreseeable future -- 2^64 bytes of RAM is something on the order of a billion gigabytes of RAM.

                             

   
System board/Motherboard :- which holds the Processor, Random Access Memory and other parts, and has slots for expansion cards .Motherboards have come a long way in the last twenty years. The first motherboards held very few actual components. The first IBM PC motherboard had only a processor and card slots. Users plugged components like floppy drive controllers and memory into the slots
Today, motherboards typically boast a wide variety of built-in features, and they directly affect a computer's capabilities and potential for upgrades. In this article, we'll look at the general components of a motherboard. Then, we'll closely examine five points that dramatically affect what a computer can do.

MEMORY

Memory is categorized into Volatile and Non- volatile Memory

Volatile Memory – Stores data temporarily

Non -Volatile Memory – Stores data permanently 

Types of memory

1. Random Access Memory (RAM)
2. Read Only Memory (ROM)
3. Hybrid
4. Logical Memory
5. Virtual Memory
6. Flash Memory
7. Cache Memory

Types of memory based on based on technology

1.      Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) –

Stores the data as long as the power is supplied to the system

2.      Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) –

 Stores the data for few milliseconds

Types of DRAM

Extended Data-Out DRAM (EDO DRAM) 

Fetches the data from the next cell before the previous process completes

Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory ( SDRAM ) 

 Synchronizes the memory speed with the CPU clock speed

Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory ( RDRAM ) 

 Sends data very frequently on the data bus and reads data on every rise and fall of the clock cycle

DDR-SDRAM 

 It is almost twice the speed of the SDRAM

Video Random Access Memory (VRAM) 

 Stores the images that are to be displayed on the computer screen

Synchronous Graphics RAM (SGRAM)

 Speeds up memory access for graphics functions

Types of Memory Packages

Single In-line Memory Module (SIMM)

 Contains pins for accepting data from the control circuit

Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM)

 Similar to a SIMM. The difference between the SIMM and DIMM is that DIMM is a 168-pin package

Small Outline Dual In-line Memory Module (SODIMM)

Has a notch at the bottom of the circuit board

Micro DIMM

 Connects the memory module with the memory socket

Rambus in-line Memory Module (RIMM)

 Similar to DIMM package. It only differs in the pin configuration 

Much of the memory available today is dual data rate (DDR) memory. This means that the memory can transmit data twice per cycle instead of once, which makes the memory faster.

 200-pin DDR SODIMM RAM

A motherboard's memory slots directly affect what kind and how much memory is supported. Just like other components, the memory plugs into the slot via a series of pins. The memory module must have the right number of pins to fit into the slot on the motherboard. In the earliest days of motherboards, virtually everything other than the processor came on a card that plugged into the board. Now, motherboards feature a variety of onboard accessories such as LA support, video, sound support and RAID controllers

For many average users, these built-in features provide ample support for video and sound. For avid gamers and people who do high-intensity graphic or computer-aided design (CAD) work, however, separate video card provide much better performance. 

Buses: 

PCI bus, PCI-E bus, ISA bus (outdated), USB, AGP

Accelerated Graphics Port( AGP ) :-

Using theAccelerated Graphics Port (AGP) slot for video cards removes a substantial amount of traffic, but not enough to compensate for faster processors and I/O devices.

      Figure: 1.5 V AGP cards being installed in a 1.5 V AGP slot.

Figure: It is not possible to install a 3.3 V video card in a 1.5 V AGP slot

In 1996, Intel introduced AGP as a more efficient way to deliver the streaming video and real-time-rendered 3-D graphics that were becoming more prevalent in all aspects of computing.              

AGP-based graphics card

The Internet and most software were more and more graphically oriented, and the demands of the graphics card needed priority over all other PCI devices. AGP is based on the design of the PCI bus; but unlike a bus, it provides a dedicated point-to-point connection from the graphics card to the CPU. With a clear path to the CPU and system memory AGP provides a much faster, more efficient way for your computer to get the information it needs to render complex graphics. In the next section, we'll see how this is done.

PCI: Wasting RAM: -

Speed is not the only area where AGP has bested its predecessor. It also streamlines the process of rendering graphics by using system memory more efficiently. With PCI, texture maps are loaded from the hard drive to system memory, processed by the CPU and then loaded into the frame buffer of the graphics card.

AGP: Saving RAM: - 

AGP improves the process of storing texture maps by allowing the operating system to designate RAM for use by the graphics card on the fly. This type of memory is called AGP memory or non-local video memory. Using the much more abundant and faster RAM used by the operating system to store texture maps reduces the number of maps that have to be stored on the graphics card's memory.

AGP Today: - 

AGP and AGP graphics cards are now the standard for processing graphics on computers. Like all hardware, the technology and specifications are constantly improving.

AMR, CNR and ACR slots: -

AMR (Audio Modem Riser), CNR (Communications and Network Riser) and ACR (Advanced Communications Riser) are slots that you can find on your motherboard that have the same goal: to install HSP (Host Signal Processing) devices to your PC. These devices can be modems, sound cards and network cards.

AMR (Audio Modem Riser):-

The AMR slot can be found in the middle of the motherboard, besides the AGP slot

                                                      Figure: Example of an AMR modem.    

CNR (Communications and Network Riser):- 

The CNR slot is located on the side of the motherboard, near the last PCI slot. As you can see comparing Figures 1 and 4, AMR and CNR devices are a little bit different, event though the slots are very similar. Not only the edge connector (the part that goes into the slot) is different, the card has a different orientation. The side that has the I/O connectors on an AMR device is located to the left, and this side on a CNR device is located to the right

                                                      

                                                        Figure: CNR slot location.              

                                                       Figure: Example of a CNR modem.

PCI Express and Advanced Graphics: - 

We've established that PCIe can eliminate the need for an AGP connection. A x16 PCIe slot can accommodate far more data per second than current AGP 8x connections allow. In addition, a x16 PCIe slot can supply 75 watts of power to the video card, as opposed to the 25watt/42 watt AGP 8x connection.

Power Supply:-

A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, SMPS, or simply switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator in order to be highly efficient in the conversion of electrical power. Like other types of power supplies, an SMPS transfer’s power from a source like the electrical power grid to a load (e.g., a personal computer) while converting voltage and current characteristics. An SMPS is usually employed to efficiently provide a regulated output voltage, typically at a level different from the input voltage.

Storage controllers, of IDE, SCSI or other type, that control hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM and other drives; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards.

Hard Disk:-

A hard disk or drive is the part of your computer responsible for long-term storage of information. Unlike volatile memory (often referred to as RAM) which loses its stored information once its power supply is shut off, a hard disk stores information permanently.

Inside: Beneath the Board:-

Underneath the board are the connections for the motor that spins the platters, as well as a highly-filtered vent hole that lets internal and external air pressures equalize:

Removing the cover from the drive reveals an extremely simple but very precise interior

In this picture you can see:

    The platters - These typically spin at 3,600 or 7,200 rpm when the drive is operating.

    The arm - This holds the read/write heads and is controlled by the mechanism in the upper-left corner. The arm is able to move the heads from the hub to the edge of the drive. The arm and its movement mechanism are extremely light and fast. 

Inside: Platters and Heads

In order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard disks have multiple platters. This drive has three platters and six read/write heads:

The mechanism that moves the arms on a hard disk has to be incredibly fast and precise. It can be constructed using a high-speed linear motor

In this article, we will look at how CDs and CD drives work. We will also look at the different forms CDs take, as well as what the future holds for this technology.

Understanding the CD:

As discussed in how analog and digital recording works a CD can store up to 74 minutes of music, so the total amount of digital data that must be stored on a CD is:

44,100 samples/channel/second x 2 bytes/sample x 2 channels x 74 minutes x 60 seconds/minute = 783,216,000 bytes

To fit more than 783 megabytes (MB) onto a disc only 4.8 inches (12 cm) in diameter requires that the individual bytes be very small. By examining the physical construction of a CD, you can begin to understand just how small these bytes are.

A CD is a fairly simple piece of plastic, about four one-hundredths (4/100) of an inch (1.2 mm) thick. Most of a CD consists of an injection-molded piece of clear polycarbonate plastic.

in at 3,600 or 7,200 rpm when the drive is operating

DVD : - 
The first DVD player hit the market in March 1997. A DVD is very similar to a CD, but it has a much larger data capacity. A standard DVD holds about seven times more data than a CD does. This huge capacity means that a DVD has enough room to store a full-length, MPEG-2-encoded movie, as well as a lot of other information.

Here are the typical contents of a DVD movie:

·         Up to 133 minutes of high-resolution video, in letterbox or pan-and-scan format, with 720 dots of horizontal resolution (The video compression ratio is typically 40:1 using MPEG-2 compression.)

·         Soundtrack presented in up to eight languages using 5.1 channel Dolby digital surround sound

·         Subtitles in up to 32 languages

DVD can also be used to store almost eight hours of CD-quality music per side.

The format offers many advantages over VHS tapes:

·         DVD picture quality is better, and many DVDs have Dolby Digital or DTS sound, which is much closer to the sound you experience in a movie theater.

·         Many DVD movies have an on-screen index, where the creator of the DVD has labeled many of the significant parts of the movie, sometimes with a picture. With your remote, if you select the part of the movie you want to view, the DVD player will take you right to that part, with no need to rewind or fast-forward.

·         DVD players are compatible with audio CDs

·         Some DVD movies have both the letterbox format, which fits wide-screen TVs, and the standard TV size format, so you can choose which way you want to watch the movie.

·         DVD movies may have several soundtracks on them, and they may provide subtitles in different languages. Foreign movies may give you the choice between the version dubbed into your language, or the original soundtrack with subtitles in your language.

Storing Data on a DVD :-

DVDs are of the same diameter and thickness as CDs , and they are made using some of the same materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the data on a DVD is encoded in the form of small pits and bumps in the track of the disc.

Double-sided discs are printed only on the nonreadable area near the hole in the middle. Cross sectionsof the various types of completed DVDs (not to scale) look like this:Each writable layer of a DVD has a spiral track of data. On single-layer DVDs, the track always circles from the inside of the disc to the outside.

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